Despite its existence for more than 80 years, the titanium industry is still challenged by massive carbon emissions, high production costs, and large resource waste. More than one hundred million tons of Ti−bearing blast furnace slag (TB−slag) has been discarded in China because of the difficulty of reutilization, which requires efficient titanium extraction and recovery technologies. This paper describes a low−cost, carbon−emission−free method for Ti extraction and oxygen evolution via molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) vacuum distillation. After a comprehensive analysis of the binding energies and activities of liquid metals, the highlights of our study are as follows. 1) Sb has the best preferential deposition of Ti among a series of high−Ti−affinitive liquid metal cathodes (Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Sb). 2) The Ir anode was first used in TB−slag with IrO 2 formed on its surface to protect it from further corrosion. 3) An alloy containing Ti and Ca can be obtained by MOE, and Ti and Ca metals can be refined by further vacuum distillation. 4) A closed loop is formed in the overall process owing to the recyclable Sb cathode and continuous feeding of TB−slag into the electrolyte. This simple, low−cost, and environmentally friendly method can realize the efficient utilization of Ti resources and achieve carbon neutrality.
Tao Dai,Yue Zhao,Xiao-Hui Ning,R. Lakshmi Narayan,Ju Li,Zhi-wei Shan
Li-Bi based liquid metal batteries (LMBs) have attracted interest due to their potential for solving grid scale energy storage problems. In this study, the feasibility of replacing the bismuth cathode with a bismuth-antimony alloy cathode in lithium based LMBs is investigated. The influence of the Bi:Sb ratio on voltage characteristics is evaluated via the constant current discharge method and electrochemical titration. On observing the cross section of the electrode at various stages of discharge, it is determined that both Sb and Bi form solid intermetallics with Li on the cathode. Additionally, the addition of Bi not only reduces the melting temperature of the Bi:Sb intermetallic but also actively contributes to the electrode capacity. Thereafter, a Li|LiCl-LiF|Sb-Bi liquid metal battery with 3 A h nameplate capacity, assembled and cycled at 1 C rate, is found to possess a stable capacity for over 160 cycles. The overall performance of this battery is discussed in the context of cost effectiveness, energy and coulombic efficiencies.
Liquid metal batteries (LMBs) with Na anode exhibit the advantages of low-cost, high-safety, long-lifespan, and easy scale-up, making them promising for large-scale energy storage applications. However, the high solubility of Na and its sluggish kinetics in discharge products result in severe self-discharge and low cathode utilization, significantly hindering the development of Na-based LMBs. In this study, a stable Na-Li dual cation LMB with metal Sb cathode is designed based on the in-situ displacement reaction between Na and molten salts of lithium halides electrolyte. This design effectively suppresses the self-discharge of the battery, and the multistage discharge mechanism of the dual-cation system enhances cathode utilization. Moreover, the self-healing property of the Sb cathode protects the electrode against volume expansion and degradation, enhancing cycling performance. The Na-Li| LiCl-KCl-NaCl |Sb cell was constructed and operated at 485 °C. The battery retained 97.02 % of its capacity after 800 cycles at 0.6 C, with a decay rate of 0.00373 % per cycle. Furthermore, the battery achieves a cathode material utilization of 89 % at 0.6 C. These improvements effectively promote the development and application of LMBs.
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