Poor interface toughening reduces the utilisation of particle/fibre-reinforced thermoset polymer composites in many engineering applications. Numerous studies have been performed on polymer and fibre component modifications, yet utilising fillers in epoxy is a promising way to improve interface toughness. Here, a molecularly designed core–shell particle (CSP) is introduced into the epoxy polymer to generate a strong interface through an epoxy coupling agent acrylate shell and styrene-butadiene rubber core. The nanocomposite material, in particular, has an excellent tensile strength of 166% and exceptional elongation of 245%; these properties further improve the interlaminar shear strength of 225% in carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composite. Moreover, CSP gives better shear effects and stress transferability to the fibre–matrix interface region. It was clarified systematically by developing a 3D micro- and macro-mechanical model from field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and surface fracture analysis. Meanwhile, results suggest that effective toughness is achieved by well-dispersed and void growth, filler-epoxy interaction and strong matrix-fibre interfaces. With these features, this study emphasises a way to analyse composite structures and fibre laminates which can help engineering design strategies for various applications.
Acoustic holography (AH), a promising approach for cell patterning, emerges as a powerful tool for constructing novel in vitro 3D models that mimic organs and cancers features. However, understanding changes in cell function post-AH remains limited. Furthermore, replicating complex physiological and pathological processes solely with cell lines proves challenging. Here, we employed acoustical holographic lattice to assemble primary hepatocytes directly isolated from mice into a cell cluster matrix to construct a liver-shaped tissue sample. For the first time, we evaluated the liver functions of AH-patterned primary hepatocytes. The patterned model exhibited large numbers of self-assembled spheroids and superior multifarious core hepatocyte functions compared to cells in 2D and traditional 3D culture models. AH offers a robust protocol for long-term in vitro culture of primary cells, underscoring its potential for future applications in disease pathogenesis research, drug testing, and organ replacement therapy.
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