Exposure to cypermethrin pesticide disturbs the microbiome and disseminates antibiotic resistance genes in soil and the gut of Enchytraeus crypticus

Worldwide, pyrethroids , such as cypermethrin, are the second most applied group of insecticides, however, their effects on the soil microbiome and non-target soil fauna remain largely unknown. Herein, we assessed the change of bacterial communities and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) of soil and in the gut of the model soil species Enchytraeus crypticus using a combination of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, and high-throughput qPCR of ARGs. Results indicate that cypermethrin exposure enriches potential pathogens (e.g. Bacillus anthracis ) in the soil and gut microbiome of E. crypticus , heavily disrupting the latter’s microbiome structure, and even disrupts activities of the E. crypticus immune system. The co-occurrence of potential pathogens (e.g. Acinetobacter baumannii ), ARGs, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) revealed the increased risk of pathogenicity as well as antibiotic resistance in potential pathogens. Moreover, structural equation modeling demonstrated that the dissemination of ARGs was not only promoted by MGEs, but also by the ratio of the core to non-core bacterial abundance. Collectively, these results provide an in-depth view of the previously unappreciated environmental risk of cypermethrin on the dissemination of ARGs in the soil and non-target soil fauna.