Built-in microscale electrostatic fields induced by anatase–rutile-phase transition in selective areas promote osteogenesis

Bone has a built-in electric field because of the presence of piezoelectric collagen. To date, only externally applied electric fields have been used to direct cell behavior; however, these fields are not safe or practical for in vivo use. In this work, for the first time, we use a periodic microscale electric field (MEF) built into a titanium implant to induce osteogenesis. Such a MEF is generated by the periodic organization of a junction made of two parallel semiconducting TiO 2 zones: anatase and rutile with lower and higher electron densities, respectively. The junctions were formed through anatase–rutile-phase transition in selective areas using laser irradiation on the implants. The in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed that the built-in MEF was an efficient electrical cue for inducing osteogenic differentiation in the absence of osteogenic supplements and promoted bone regeneration around the implants. Our work opens up a new avenue toward bone repair and regeneration using built-in MEF.