3D printed B2O3-composite TCP scaffolds with GO coating for bone regeneration

Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds are widely recognized for their use in bone tissue engineering. However, suboptimal mechanical properties and limited bioactivity often hampered their application. This study presents a novel approach to enhance the performance of TCP scaffolds through a combination of composite doping and surface modification. TCP scaffolds were doped with 3 % boron oxide (B 2 O 3 , BO) via 3D ink printing. These scaffolds were subsequently immersed in the graphene oxide (GO) solution for surface modification to form GO0.25 scaffolds. The incorporation of B 2 O 3 significantly enhances the mechanical properties and cell viability of TCP scaffolds. When sintered at 1150 °C, the TCP/BO3 scaffolds achieve optimal mechanical characteristics, with a compressive strength of 32.68 MPa and an elastic modulus of 1833.19 MPa. Additionally, the GO surface modification improves cell adhesion and upregulates the expression of osteogenic genes. Mineralization degradation experiments indicated that the GO0.25 scaffolds possessed excellent bioactivity. Furthermore, cellular experiments demonstrated that the scaffolds significantly enhanced cell adhesion, spreading, and osteogenic differentiation. In vivo rat cranial defect experiments confirmed that GO0.25 scaffolds exhibited the most effective cranial bone repair. These findings suggest that TCP/BO/GO scaffolds, developed through composite and surface modifications, hold significant potential for future applications in bone tissue regeneration.