Physicochemical Characteristics, Antioxidant Capacity, and Antimicrobial Activity of Stingless Bee Honey from Malaysia: Heterotrigona itama, Lophotrigona canifrons, and Tetrigona binghami

The composition and bioactivity of honey are influenced by its botanical, geographical, and entomological origins. This study investigates the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of stingless bee honey (SBH) produced by three Malaysian stingless bee species: Heterotrigona itama , Lophotrigona canifrons , and Tetrigona binghami . The moisture content ranges from 25.44% to 40.36%, while the honey color varies from light amber to dark amber. The fructose, glucose, and sucrose contents range from 5.45 to 16.91 g/100 g, 3.85 to 19.64 g/100 g, and undetectable to 2.47 g/100 g, respectively. Trehalulose is present at a level of 15.42 to 43.75 g/100 g, with L. canifrons honey exhibiting the highest trehalulose concentration. All samples show low 5-HMF content and no detectable diastase activity. T. binghami honey has the lowest pH, highest electricity conductivity and acidity, and exhibits the strongest antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli . H. itama honey exhibits the highest antioxidant potential based on ABTS, FRAP, and DPPH assays. Among the three species, L. canifrons honey contains the highest total phenolic content. These findings provide valuable insights into the unique properties of SBH, supporting further research, quality assessment, and the development of international standards.