Polyphenol-based coacervate droplets as building blocks for protocells and prototissues

Despite the nascent stage of research into protocells and prototissues, their substantial potential has increasingly positioned them as a focal point in recent years. The bottom-up reconstruction of life systems is gradually garnering widespread attention. In this study, a type of protocells and corresponding prototissues based on polyphenol coacervate droplets were developed via hydrogen bond interactions. The droplets exhibited properties reminiscent of cytoplasm, enriching a wide range of substances. Upon further modification with lipid bilayers, the protocells not only achieved a structural resemblance to natural cells, but also effectively maintained the stability. Prototissues formed by the orderly aggregation of protocells can not only encapsulate living cells, but also maintain the structural integrity and function of both artificial and living cells. At the macroscopic level, the prototissues were injectable, customizable in shape, bioadhesive, and capable of long-term retention in vivo. Moreover, the prototissues showed no obvious inflammatory responses. Polyphenol-based protocells and tissues with unique characteristics may offer new insights for research and applications in organoids, transplantation, and medical devices.