Engineering gel-like W/O/W systems via soy lipophilic protein-sodium alginate Maillard conjugates and beeswax: Assessment of molecular mechanisms and physicochemical properties

Maillard conjugates of proteins and polysaccharides show excellent potential for gelation in W/O/W systems. Meanwhile, co-gelation strategies of the oil and external aqueous phases have received sustained attention in the study of W/O/W systems. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of soy lipophilic protein‑sodium alginate maillard conjugates (LP@SA) and its application with beeswax (BW) in the construction of gel-like W/O/W systems (G-W/O/W). pH 11-treated LP exhibited enhanced glycosylation sites, achieving a grafting degree of 55.36 % and a browning value of 0.84. SA improved LP's interfacial properties, including reduced particle size, increased zeta potential (−38.5 mV), and superior interfacial protein adsorption (84.08 % AP). Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that LP@SA and BW exhibited high solubility and diffusivity in aqueous and oil phases, respectively. Meanwhile, under optimized conditions (5 % BW and 1:1 LP/SA ratio), G-W/O/W exhibited optimal viscoelasticity and pH/thermal responsiveness, maintaining structural integrity under environmental fluctuations. Furthermore, In vitro release revealed sustained release in simulated intestinal fluid, with free fatty acid levels being controlled by BW. These findings highlight the co-gelation potential of LP@SA and BW and provide a technical basis for the development of novel W/O/W systems.