Dynamic Changes in Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) Polyphenols During Maturation and In Vitro Digestion and Their Effects on the Gut Microbiota

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllusLam.) phenolic compounds are chemically diverse. Previous studies have predominantly focused on easily extractable free polyphenols, with limited attention on bound (conjugated) polyphenols. The transformation mechanisms of these polyphenols during maturation, digestion, and colonic fermentation remain unclear, limiting the full utilization of jackfruit resources. This study provides a comprehensive portrait of how jackfruit polyphenols shift in abundance, chemical composition, and bioactivity throughout maturation, in vitro digestion, and colonic fermentation. It also quantifies their selective reshaping of the human gut microbiota and their enhancement of short-chain fatty acid production. The results indicate a significant conversion of bound to free polyphenols during maturation, with distinct behaviors observed across different digestion stages. More importantly, jackfruit polyphenols selectively enrich beneficial gut bacteria, promote short-chain fatty acid production, and positively regulate gut health.