High-Performance Cu-Based Liquid Thermocells Enabled by Thermosensitive Crystallization and Etched Carbon Cloth Electrode

A novel Cu + /Cu 2+ redox couple was introduced to enable a thermosensitive crystallization process, significantly enhancing thermopower from 1.47 to 2.93 mV K ‒1 . A readily fabricated etched carbon cloth electrode offered an enlarged electroactive surface area, demonstrating superior current density through improved kinetics. The optimized Cu + /Cu 2+ system, achieved through synergistic enhancements in thermodynamic and kinetic performance, delivered an outstanding normalized power density P max ( ΔT ) ‒2 of 3.97 mW m ‒2  K ‒2 .