Zein-tannic acid-β-glucan composite particles: engineering for high internal phase emulsions, β-carotene encapsulation, and colitis mitigation efficacy

Despite the promising potential of emulsions as oral delivery vehicles, challenges such as insufficient interfacial stability, poor encapsulation efficiency, and limited mucosal adhesion still hinder their effectiveness in delivering lipophilic bioactives. In this study, we developed a high internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) system stabilized by zein–tannic acid–β-glucan (ZTB) ternary complex particles to enhance the oral delivery of β-carotene. The incorporation of β-glucan markedly improved the droplet size uniformity, interfacial protein adsorption, and storage and digestion stability of HIPPEs. The optimized ZTB − 0.6 -stabilized HIPPEs achieved a high encapsulation efficiency of ~ 88.77%, β-carotene retention of ~85.57% after 28 days of storage at 4 °C, and bioaccessibility of ~ 24.10% during in vitro digestion. Rheological tests confirmed desirable shear-thinning and thixotropic properties, suitable for 3D food printing. Furthermore, in vivo evaluations using a DSS-induced murine colitis model revealed that β-carotene-loaded ZTB-HIPPEs exerted multifaceted therapeutic effects: they effectively mitigated colonic inflammatory responses, bolstered the endogenous antioxidant capacity, and contributed to the restoration of intestinal barrier integrity. These findings highlight the potential of ZTB-stabilized HIPPEs as a multifunctional platform for targeted nutrient delivery and intestinal health improvement. Graphical