Functional insights and salt tolerance: Molecular characterization of two F3H/FNS I homologs from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg

Flavonoid compounds in Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg ( T. hemsleyanum ) are essential for plant stress responses, yet their biosynthetic pathways and regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study identified and characterized two flavanone-3-hydroxylase ( F3H ) genes, Th F3H1 and Th F3H2, from T. hemsleyanum , which belong to the 2ODDs-DOXC28 subfamily. Tissue-specific expression analysis revealed that both genes are highly expressed in tuberous roots, with distinct stress response patterns observed. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses confirmed that these genes contain typical structural domains of the 2ODD family and are closely related to F3H proteins from various plant species. Subcellular localization studies indicated that Th F3H1 is predominantly cytoplasmic, while Th F3H2 is found both in the cytoplasm and the nucleus. In vitro enzymatic assays demonstrated that both enzymes catalyze the conversion of naringenin to dihydrokaempferol and small amounts of apigenin, with Th F3H2 exhibiting higher catalytic efficiency ( k cat / K m  = 0.0093 s −1 ·μM −1 ). AlphaFold2 predictions and molecular docking analysis revealed the binding modes of Th F3H1 with itssubstrates. Site-directed mutagenesis further identified four key catalytic residues (Glu122, Lys196, Lys326, and Asp330). Furthermore, both genes were significantly upregulated under salt stress, and their heterologous expression enhanced the salt tolerance of Escherichia coli , underscoring their critical roles in plant stress responses. These findings enhance the understanding of plant F3H function and provide a molecular foundation for improving the quality and stress resistance of T. hemsleyanum .