Ultrasonication-assisted MXene/CdS photocatalysts for biomass-derived H2 production: Performance optimization and life cycle assessment

Transitioning toward sustainable energy systems requires H 2 production routes that are both efficient and environmentally responsible. In this work, biomass-based photocatalytic H 2 production was systematically investigated by integrating catalyst synthesis optimization with environmental assessment. A CdS-based photocatalyst modified with Ti 3 C 2 T x MXene was synthesized via an ultrasound-assisted approach, and the effects of ultrasonication conditions, catalyst loading, and reaction temperature on photocatalytic performance were evaluated. Under optimized conditions, the MXene/CdS photocatalyst achieved a H 2 production rate of 16.212 mmol g −1 ·h −1 with good cycling stability. To assess the environmental implications of different experimental strategies and operating conditions, a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment was conducted and complemented by outdoor photocatalytic tests under natural sunlight. The results indicate that moderate ultrasonication, appropriate catalyst dosage, and optimized reaction temperature can effectively reduce environmental burdens. Variations in solar availability further influence environmental performance, highlighting the combined importance of process optimization and realistic operating conditions. Overall, this study demonstrates that coupling photocatalytic performance optimization with environmental assessment provides a more comprehensive understanding of the opportunities and limitations of biomass-based H 2 production.