Self-Cleaning PVDF ultrafiltration membranes via elctro-responsive g-C3N4/rGO composite incorporation

A self-cleaning ultrafiltration membrane with electrically switchable antifouling and antibacterial functions was developed by incorporating a g‑C 3 N 4 /reduced graphene oxide (rGO) composite into a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) matrix. At + 1.5  V, the optimized membrane (M3, 7.5  wt% g‑C 3 N 4 ) achieved a pure water flux of 115.97  L·m −2 ·h −1 , and a BSA flux retention 85.6 % (51.35  L·m −2 ·h −1 ) after 3  h, outperforming the control membrane (M0) with 76.57  L·m −2 ·h −1 , and 59.2 % retention (35.53  L·m −2 ·h −1 ). The M3 membrane achieved a BSA rejection of 99.70 %, a flux recovery ratio (FRR) of 93.86 %, and an antibacterial efficiency of ∼99.7 % against E. coli under dark conditions. The superior self-cleaning performance is attributed to the synergistic effects of enhanced electrostatic repulsion and electrocatalytic generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This work offers a practical strategy for designing smart separation membranes with on-demand antifouling and self-cleaning capabilities for advanced water purification.