Dual regulation of flavor profile and β-carboline heterocyclic amines formation by oxygen during oven cooking of beef patties

This study investigated the effect of oxygen concentration during oven cooking on flavor development, sensory quality, and β-carboline heterocyclic amines formation in beef patties. Samples were cooked at 190 °C (baking) and 210 °C (roasting) under controlled oxygen atmospheres of 5% and 21%. Key physicochemical parameters, including moisture content, color, volatile compounds, and free amino acids, were determined, and sensory evaluation was conducted. Both Harman and Norharman increased with temperature and oxygen availability. Harman increased from 0.08 to 0.21 ng/g at 190 °C and from 0.17 to 0.25 ng/g at 210 °C as oxygen elevated from 5% to 21%, while Norharman increased from 0.26 to 0.38 ng/g and from 0.46 to 0.53 ng/g, respectively. The two combined β-carboline heterocyclic amines content increased consistently from 0.41 to 0.91 ng/g across treatments. Reduced-oxygen cooking effectively suppressed lipid oxidation–derived aldehydes, including (E)-non-2-enal, and limited β-carboline formation without compromising sensory acceptance. Meanwhile, key aroma-active compounds such as nonanal and dimethyl trisulfide remained relatively stable, indicating that desirable meaty aroma was largely preserved. Notably, baking at 190 °C under 5% oxygen provided the optimal balance between desirable aroma retention and chemical safety. These findings demonstrate that oxygen-controlled oven cooking is a promising strategy to improve the sensory quality and safety of thermally processed meat products.